These are the two most prevalent types of air pollution. Smog sometimes referred to as ground-level ozone occurs when emissions from combusting fossil fuels react with sunlight. Soot also known as particulate matter is made up of tiny particles of chemicals, soil, smoke, dust, or allergens—in the form of either gas or solids—that are carried in the air. The sources of smog and soot are similar. Smog can irritate the eyes and throat and also damage the lungs, especially those of children, senior citizens, and people who work or exercise outdoors.
The tiniest airborne particles in soot, whether gaseous or solid, are especially dangerous because they can penetrate the lungs and bloodstream and worsen bronchitis, lead to heart attacks, and even hasten death.
Because highways and polluting facilities have historically been sited in or next to low-income neighborhoods and communities of color, the negative effects of this pollution have been disproportionately experienced by the people who live in these communities. In the Union of Concerned Scientists found that soot exposure was 34 percent higher for Asian Americans , on average, than for other Americans.
For Black people, the exposure rate was 24 percent higher; for Latinos, 23 percent higher. A number of air pollutants pose severe health risks and can sometimes be fatal even in small amounts. Almost of them are regulated by law; some of the most common are mercury, lead, dioxins, and benzene. Benzene, classified as a carcinogen by the EPA, can cause eye, skin, and lung irritation in the short term and blood disorders in the long term.
Dioxins, more typically found in food but also present in small amounts in the air, can affect the liver in the short term and harm the immune, nervous, and endocrine systems as well as reproductive functions.
Mercury attacks the central nervous system. Another category of toxic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAHs , are by-products of traffic exhaust and wildfire smoke. In large amounts they have been linked to eye and lung irritation, blood and liver issues, and even cancer. In one study, the children of mothers exposed to PAHs during pregnancy showed slower brain-processing speeds and more pronounced symptoms of ADHD.
In October more than countries reached an agreement to reduce the use of these chemicals—which are found in air conditioners and refrigerators—and develop greener alternatives over time. Though President Trump was unwilling to sign on to this agreement, a bipartisan group of senators overrode his objections in and set the United States on track to slash HFCs by 85 percent by Mold and allergens from trees, weeds, and grass are also carried in the air, are exacerbated by climate change, and can be hazardous to health.
Pollen allergies are worsening because of climate change. According to the most recent State of Global Air report —which summarizes the latest scientific understanding of air pollution around the world—4. Some four out of ten U.
Since the annual report was first published, in , its findings have shown how the Clean Air Act has been able to reduce harmful emissions from transportation, power plants, and manufacturing. Recent findings, however, reflect how climate change—fueled wildfires and extreme heat are adding to the challenges of protecting public health.
The latest report—which focuses on ozone, year-round particle pollution, and short-term particle pollution—also finds that people of color are 61 percent more likely than white people to live in a county with a failing grade in at least one of those categories, and three times more likely to live in a county that fails in all three.
In rankings for each of the three pollution categories covered by the ALA report, California cities occupy the top three slots i. You can check the air quality of your own city or state on this map. No one wants to live next door to an incinerator, oil refinery, port, toxic waste dump, or other polluting site. An association of pollution with mortality was reported on the basis of monitoring of outdoor pollution in six US metropolitan cities In every case, it seems that mortality was closely related to the levels of fine, inhalable, and sulfate particles more than with the levels of total particulate pollution, aerosol acidity, sulfur dioxide, or nitrogen dioxide Based on the magnitude of the public health impact, it is certain that different kinds of interventions should be taken into account.
Success and effectiveness in controlling air pollution, specifically at the local level, have been reported. Adequate technological means are applied considering the source and the nature of the emission as well as its impact on health and the environment. Without a doubt, a detailed emission inventory must record all sources in a given area. Beyond considering the above sources and their nature, topography and meteorology should also be considered, as stated previously.
Assessment of the control policies and methods is often extrapolated from the local to the regional and then to the global scale. Air pollution may be dispersed and transported from one region to another area located far away. Air pollution management means the reduction to acceptable levels or possible elimination of air pollutants whose presence in the air affects our health or the environmental ecosystem.
Private and governmental entities and authorities implement actions to ensure the air quality Air quality standards and guidelines were adopted for the different pollutants by the WHO and EPA as a tool for the management of air quality 1 , These standards have to be compared to the emissions inventory standards by causal analysis and dispersion modeling in order to reveal the problematic areas Inventories are generally based on a combination of direct measurements and emissions modeling As an example, we state here the control measures at the source through the use of catalytic converters in cars.
These are devices that turn the pollutants and toxic gases produced from combustion engines into less-toxic pollutants by catalysis through redox reactions In Greece, the use of private cars was restricted by tracking their license plates in order to reduce traffic congestion during rush hour Concerning industrial emissions, collectors and closed systems can keep the air pollution to the minimal standards imposed by legislation Current strategies to improve air quality require an estimation of the economic value of the benefits gained from proposed programs.
These proposed programs by public authorities, and directives are issued with guidelines to be respected. While both standards and directives are based on different mechanisms, significant success has been achieved in the reduction of overall emissions and associated health and environmental effects In this vein, funds have been financing, directly or indirectly, projects related to air quality along with the technical infrastructure to maintain good air quality.
These plans focus on an inventory of databases from air quality environmental planning awareness campaigns. Moreover, pollution measures of air emissions may be taken for vehicles, machines, and industries in urban areas. Technological innovation can only be successful if it is able to meet the needs of society.
In this sense, technology must reflect the decision-making practices and procedures of those involved in risk assessment and evaluation and act as a facilitator in providing information and assessments to enable decision makers to make the best decisions possible. Summarizing the aforementioned in order to design an effective air quality control strategy, several aspects must be considered: environmental factors and ambient air quality conditions, engineering factors and air pollutant characteristics, and finally, economic operating costs for technological improvement and administrative and legal costs.
Considering the economic factor, competitiveness through neoliberal concepts is offering a solution to environmental problems The development of environmental governance, along with technological progress, has initiated the deployment of a dialogue. Environmental politics has created objections and points of opposition between different political parties, scientists, media, and governmental and non-governmental organizations Radical environmental activism actions and movements have been created The rise of the new information and communication technologies ICTs are many times examined as to whether and in which way they have influenced means of communication and social movements such as activism Nowadays, multiple digital technologies can be used to produce a digital activism outcome on environmental issues.
More specifically, devices with online capabilities such as computers or mobile phones are being used as a way to pursue change in political and social affairs In the present paper, we focus on the sources of environmental pollution in relation to public health and propose some solutions and interventions that may be of interest to environmental legislators and decision makers.
It is known that the majority of environmental pollutants are emitted through large-scale human activities such as the use of industrial machinery, power-producing stations, combustion engines, and cars.
Some other human activities are also influencing our environment to a lesser extent, such as field cultivation techniques, gas stations, fuel tanks heaters, and cleaning procedures 32 , as well as several natural sources, such as volcanic and soil eruptions and forest fires.
The classification of air pollutants is based mainly on the sources producing pollution. Therefore, it is worth mentioning the four main sources, following the classification system: Major sources, Area sources, Mobile sources, and Natural sources.
Major sources include the emission of pollutants from power stations, refineries, and petrochemicals, the chemical and fertilizer industries, metallurgical and other industrial plants, and, finally, municipal incineration. Indoor area sources include domestic cleaning activities, dry cleaners, printing shops, and petrol stations. Mobile sources include automobiles, cars, railways, airways, and other types of vehicles.
Finally, natural sources include, as stated previously, physical disasters 33 such as forest fire, volcanic erosion, dust storms, and agricultural burning. However, many classification systems have been proposed. Another type of classification is a grouping according to the recipient of the pollution, as follows:.
Air pollution is determined as the presence of pollutants in the air in large quantities for long periods. Water pollution is organic and inorganic charge and biological charge 10 at high levels that affect the water quality 34 , Soil pollution occurs through the release of chemicals or the disposal of wastes, such as heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and pesticides.
Air pollution can influence the quality of soil and water bodies by polluting precipitation, falling into water and soil environments 34 , Notably, the chemistry of the soil can be amended due to acid precipitation by affecting plants, cultures, and water quality Moreover, movement of heavy metals is favored by soil acidity, and metals are so then moving into the watery environment.
It is known that heavy metals such as aluminum are noxious to wildlife and fishes. Soil quality seems to be of importance, as soils with low calcium carbonate levels are at increased jeopardy from acid rain. Over and above rain, snow and particulate matter drip into watery ' bodies 36 , Radioactive and nuclear pollution , releasing radioactive and nuclear pollutants into water, air, and soil during nuclear explosions and accidents, from nuclear weapons, and through handling or disposal of radioactive sewage.
Radioactive materials can contaminate surface water bodies and, being noxious to the environment, plants, animals, and humans. It is known that several radioactive substances such as radium and uranium concentrate in the bones and can cause cancers 38 , Noise pollution is produced by machines, vehicles, traffic noises, and musical installations that are harmful to our hearing. In Europe, air pollution is the main cause of disability-adjusted life years lost DALYs , followed by noise pollution.
The potential relationships of noise and air pollution with health have been studied The study found that DALYs related to noise were more important than those related to air pollution, as the effects of environmental noise on cardiovascular disease were independent of air pollution Environmental noise should be counted as an independent public health risk Environmental pollution occurs when changes in the physical, chemical, or biological constituents of the environment air masses, temperature, climate, etc.
Pollutants harm our environment either by increasing levels above normal or by introducing harmful toxic substances. Primary pollutants are directly produced from the above sources, and secondary pollutants are emitted as by-products of the primary ones. Pollutants can be biodegradable or non-biodegradable and of natural origin or anthropogenic, as stated previously. Moreover, their origin can be a unique source point-source or dispersed sources.
Pollutants have differences in physical and chemical properties, explaining the discrepancy in their capacity for producing toxic effects. As an example, we state here that aerosol compounds 41 — 43 have a greater toxicity than gaseous compounds due to their tiny size solid or liquid in the atmosphere; they have a greater penetration capacity.
Gaseous compounds are eliminated more easily by our respiratory system These particles are able to damage lungs and can even enter the bloodstream 41 , leading to the premature deaths of millions of people yearly.
Air pollution and climate change are closely related. Climate is the other side of the same coin that reduces the quality of our Earth Pollutants such as black carbon, methane, tropospheric ozone, and aerosols affect the amount of incoming sunlight. As a result, the temperature of the Earth is increasing, resulting in the melting of ice, icebergs, and glaciers.
In this vein, climatic changes will affect the incidence and prevalence of both residual and imported infections in Europe. Climate and weather affect the duration, timing, and intensity of outbreaks strongly and change the map of infectious diseases in the globe Mosquito-transmitted parasitic or viral diseases are extremely climate-sensitive, as warming firstly shortens the pathogen incubation period and secondly shifts the geographic map of the vector.
Similarly, water-warming following climate changes leads to a high incidence of waterborne infections. Recently, in Europe, eradicated diseases seem to be emerging due to the migration of population, for example, cholera, poliomyelitis, tick-borne encephalitis, and malaria The spread of epidemics is associated with natural climate disasters and storms, which seem to occur more frequently nowadays Malnutrition and disequilibration of the immune system are also associated with the emerging infections affecting public health An increase in cryptosporidiosis in the United Kingdom and in the Czech Republic seems to have occurred following flooding 36 , As stated previously, aerosols compounds are tiny in size and considerably affect the climate.
They are able to dissipate sunlight the albedo phenomenon by dispersing a quarter of the sun's rays back to space and have cooled the global temperature over the last 30 years The World Health Organization WHO reports on six major air pollutants, namely particle pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. Air pollution can have a disastrous effect on all components of the environment, including groundwater, soil, and air.
Additionally, it poses a serious threat to living organisms. In this vein, our interest is mainly to focus on these pollutants, as they are related to more extensive and severe problems in human health and environmental impact.
Acid rain, global warming, the greenhouse effect, and climate changes have an important ecological impact on air pollution Studies have shown a relationship between particulate matter PM and adverse health effects, focusing on either short-term acute or long-term chronic PM exposure.
Particulate matter PM is usually formed in the atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions between the different pollutants. The penetration of particles is closely dependent on their size Particulate matter contains tiny liquid or solid droplets that can be inhaled and cause serious health effects Fine particles, PM 2.
Multiple epidemiological studies have been performed on the health effects of PM. A positive relation was shown between both short-term and long-term exposures of PM 2. In addition, long-term exposure to PM for years was found to be related to cardiovascular diseases and infant mortality. Those studies depend on PM 2. The team developed a PM 2. This model permits spatial resolution in short-term effects plus the assessment of long-term effects in the whole population.
Moreover, respiratory diseases and affection of the immune system are registered as long-term chronic effects It is worth noting that people with asthma, pneumonia, diabetes, and respiratory and cardiovascular diseases are especially susceptible and vulnerable to the effects of PM. The particles produce toxic effects according to their chemical and physical properties.
The components of PM 10 and PM 2. Particulate Matter PM is divided into four main categories according to type and size 61 Table 2. Particulate contaminants include contaminants such as smog, soot, tobacco smoke, oil smoke, fly ash, and cement dust.
Biological Contaminants are microorganisms bacteria, viruses, fungi, mold, and bacterial spores , cat allergens, house dust and allergens, and pollen. Types of Dust include suspended atmospheric dust, settling dust, and heavy dust. Finally, another fact is that the half-lives of PM 10 and PM 2. They are able to change the nutrient balance in watery ecosystems, damage forests and crops, and acidify water bodies. As stated, PM 2. Ozone O 3 is a gas formed from oxygen under high voltage electric discharge It arises in the stratosphere, but it could also arise following chain reactions of photochemical smog in the troposphere Ozone can travel to distant areas from its initial source, moving with air masses It is surprising that ozone levels over cities are low in contrast to the increased amounts occuring in urban areas, which could become harmful for cultures, forests, and vegetation 65 as it is reducing carbon assimilation Ozone reduces growth and yield 47 , 48 and affects the plant microflora due to its antimicrobial capacity 67 , In this regard, ozone acts upon other natural ecosystems, with microflora 69 , 70 and animal species changing their species composition Ozone increases DNA damage in epidermal keratinocytes and leads to impaired cellular function Ozone uptake usually occurs by inhalation.
Ozone affects the upper layers of the skin and the tear ducts A study of short-term exposure of mice to high levels of ozone showed malondialdehyde formation in the upper skin epidermis but also depletion in vitamins C and E.
It is likely that ozone levels are not interfering with the skin barrier function and integrity to predispose to skin disease Due to the low water-solubility of ozone, inhaled ozone has the capacity to penetrate deeply into the lungs Toxic effects induced by ozone are registered in urban areas all over the world, causing biochemical, morphologic, functional, and immunological disorders Daily ozone concentrations compared to the daily number of deaths were reported from different European cities for a 3-year period.
During the warm period of the year, an observed increase in ozone concentration was associated with an increase in the daily number of deaths 0. No effect was observed during wintertime. Carbon monoxide is produced by fossil fuel when combustion is incomplete.
The symptoms of poisoning due to inhaling carbon monoxide include headache, dizziness, weakness, nausea, vomiting, and, finally, loss of consciousness. The affinity of carbon monoxide to hemoglobin is much greater than that of oxygen. In this vein, serious poisoning may occur in people exposed to high levels of carbon monoxide for a long period of time.
Due to the loss of oxygen as a result of the competitive binding of carbon monoxide, hypoxia, ischemia, and cardiovascular disease are observed. Carbon monoxide affects the greenhouses gases that are tightly connected to global warming and climate.
This should lead to an increase in soil and water temperatures, and extreme weather conditions or storms may occur However, in laboratory and field experiments, it has been seen to produce increased plant growth Nitrogen oxide is a traffic-related pollutant, as it is emitted from automobile motor engines 79 , It is an irritant of the respiratory system as it penetrates deep in the lung, inducing respiratory diseases, coughing, wheezing, dyspnea, bronchospasm, and even pulmonary edema when inhaled at high levels.
It seems that concentrations over 0. It is reported that long-term exposure to high levels of nitrogen dioxide can be responsible for chronic lung disease. Long-term exposure to NO 2 can impair the sense of smell However, systems other than respiratory ones can be involved, as symptoms such as eye, throat, and nose irritation have been registered High levels of nitrogen dioxide are deleterious to crops and vegetation, as they have been observed to reduce crop yield and plant growth efficiency.
Moreover, NO 2 can reduce visibility and discolor fabrics Sulfur dioxide is a harmful gas that is emitted mainly from fossil fuel consumption or industrial activities. The annual standard for SO 2 is 0. It affects human, animal, and plant life. Susceptible people as those with lung disease, old people, and children, who present a higher risk of damage.
The major health problems associated with sulfur dioxide emissions in industrialized areas are respiratory irritation, bronchitis, mucus production, and bronchospasm, as it is a sensory irritant and penetrates deep into the lung converted into bisulfite and interacting with sensory receptors, causing bronchoconstriction. Moreover, skin redness, damage to the eyes lacrimation and corneal opacity and mucous membranes, and worsening of pre-existing cardiovascular disease have been observed Environmental adverse effects, such as acidification of soil and acid rain, seem to be associated with sulfur dioxide emissions Lead is a heavy metal used in different industrial plants and emitted from some petrol motor engines, batteries, radiators, waste incinerators, and waste waters Moreover, major sources of lead pollution in the air are metals, ore, and piston-engine aircraft.
Lead poisoning is a threat to public health due to its deleterious effects upon humans, animals, and the environment, especially in the developing countries. Exposure to lead can occur through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption. Trans- placental transport of lead was also reported, as lead passes through the placenta unencumbered The younger the fetus is, the more harmful the toxic effects. Lead toxicity affects the fetal nervous system; edema or swelling of the brain is observed Lead, when inhaled, accumulates in the blood, soft tissue, liver, lung, bones, and cardiovascular, nervous, and reproductive systems.
Moreover, loss of concentration and memory, as well as muscle and joint pain, were observed in adults 85 , Children and newborns 87 are extremely susceptible even to minimal doses of lead, as it is a neurotoxicant and causes learning disabilities, impairment of memory, hyperactivity, and even mental retardation.
Elevated amounts of lead in the environment are harmful to plants and crop growth. Neurological effects are observed in vertebrates and animals in association with high lead levels The distribution of PAHs is ubiquitous in the environment, as the atmosphere is the most important means of their dispersal. They are found in coal and in tar sediments. Moreover, they are generated through incomplete combustion of organic matter as in the cases of forest fires, incineration, and engines PAH compounds, such as benzopyrene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, and fluoranthene are recognized as toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic substances.
They are an important risk factor for lung cancer Volatile organic compounds VOCs , such as toluene, benzene, ethylbenzene, and xylene 90 , have been found to be associated with cancer in humans The use of new products and materials has actually resulted in increased concentrations of VOCs. VOCs pollute indoor air 90 and may have adverse effects on human health Short-term and long-term adverse effects on human health are observed. VOCs are responsible for indoor air smells. Short-term exposure is found to cause irritation of eyes, nose, throat, and mucosal membranes, while those of long duration exposure include toxic reactions Predictable assessment of the toxic effects of complex VOC mixtures is difficult to estimate, as these pollutants can have synergic, antagonistic, or indifferent effects 91 , Dioxins originate from industrial processes but also come from natural processes, such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions.
They accumulate in foods such as meat and dairy products, fish and shellfish, and especially in the fatty tissue of animals Short-period exhibition to high dioxin concentrations may result in dark spots and lesions on the skin Long-term exposure to dioxins can cause developmental problems, impairment of the immune, endocrine and nervous systems, reproductive infertility, and cancer Without any doubt, fossil fuel consumption is responsible for a sizeable part of air contamination.
This contamination may be anthropogenic, as in agricultural and industrial processes or transportation, while contamination from natural sources is also possible. Interestingly, it is of note that the air quality standards established through the European Air Quality Directive are somewhat looser than the WHO guidelines, which are stricter The most common air pollutants are ground-level ozone and Particulates Matter PM.
Air pollution is distinguished into two main types:. Indoor pollution is the pollution generated by household combustion of fuels.
People exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants experience disease symptoms and states of greater and lesser seriousness. These effects are grouped into short- and long-term effects affecting health. Susceptible populations that need to be aware of health protection measures include old people, children, and people with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease, especially asthma.
As extensively stated previously, according to a recent epidemiological study from Harvard School of Public Health, the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects have not been completely clarified 57 due to the different epidemiological methodologies and to the exposure errors. New models are proposed for assessing short- and long-term human exposure data more successfully Thus, in the present section, we report the more common short- and long-term health effects but also general concerns for both types of effects, as these effects are often dependent on environmental conditions, dose, and individual susceptibility.
Short-term effects are temporary and range from simple discomfort, such as irritation of the eyes, nose, skin, throat, wheezing, coughing and chest tightness, and breathing difficulties, to more serious states, such as asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis, and lung and heart problems.
Short-term exposure to air pollution can also cause headaches, nausea, and dizziness. Shop Support. How Does Pollution Affect Humans?
Shop Thousands of Verified Sustainable Products. Visit the Arbor Marketplace. Shop Products. Find ethical companies when you are browsing. See more here. See more. We live off the Earth… Since we share everything on Earth with every living thing on the planet, what happens in one area affects everything too, no matter how far away.
The Consequences of Pollution How does pollution affect humans? Air Pollution Effects We release a variety of chemicals into the atmosphere when we burn the fossil fuels we use every day. Air pollution from car exhaust affects human reproduction If pregnant women are exposed to air pollution from car exhaust, it can alter the structure of the chromosomes in the fetus and increase the risks of cancer and various birth defects.
Air pollution and climate change closely linked The main cause of air pollution as well as climate change CO2-emissions is the burning of fossil fuels oil, coal, gas. Besides: Breathing polluted air puts you at a higher risk for asthma and other respiratory diseases. Air pollutants are mostly carcinogens and living in a polluted area can put people at risk of Cancer.
Coughing and wheezing are common symptoms observed on city folks. Damages the immune system, endocrine and reproductive systems. High levels of particle pollution have been associated with higher incidents of heart problems. The burning of fossil fuels and the release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are causing the Earth to become warmer. Read about the effects of Global Warming here. The toxic chemicals released into the air settle into plants and water sources.
Animals eat the contaminated plants and drink the water. The poison then travels up the food chain — to us. Water Pollution Effects Just like the air we breathe, water is vital to our survival. The consumer society is powered by water Everything we buy, use, eat takes water to produce. The pollution of groundwater resources is increasing billion tons of groundwater is being polluted annually.
By , there will be a staggering bags of plastic for each foot of coastline in the world!
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